Discussion #6 History and Theories of Psychologythe Discussion is based on the topic of your choice from chapter 16 . Explain your understanding of the chapter, include examples, experiences, and theories.Class Book:Hergenhahn’s An Introduction to the History of PsychologyISBN: 978-1-337-56415-1
Hergenhahn’s An Introduction to the History
of Psychology
Eighth Edition
Chapter 16
Psychoanalysis
© 2019
Cengage.
All rights reserved.
© 2019 Cengage.
All rights
reserved.
Learning Objectives (1 of 3)
After reading and discussing Chapter 16, students should:
• Be familiar with the antecedent ideas which affected
Freud in his conceptualization of psychoanalytic theory.
• Be familiar with Sigmund Freud’s historical
background.
• Be acquainted with the early direct influences on
Freud.
• Be familiar with Freud’s study of hysteria.
• Understand dream analysis and accompanying
concepts.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives (2 of 3)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Be familiar with The Psychopathology of Everyday
Life and its impact.
Be familiar with Freud’s trip to the United Staes.
Understand the basic concepts of Freud’s theory of
personality.
Be familiar with the use of ego defense mechanisms.
Be acquainted with the basics of Freud’s
psychosexual stages of development.
Be acquainted with Freud’s view of human nature.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives (3 of 3)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Be familiar with revisions to Freud’s theory.
Be aware of the common criticisms of Freud’s theory.
Be aware of the contributions of Freud’s theory.
Be familiar with the views of Anna Freud and Ego
psychology.
Be acquainted with the psychology and theoretical
view of Carl Jung.
Be familiar with the views of Alfred Adler.
Be aware of the ideas and views of Karen Horney.
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Antecedents of the Development of
Psychoanalysis (1 of 4)
•
Components of the theory existed prior to the theory
– A case can be made that all components of the theory
existed prior to the theory.
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Antecedents of the Development of
Psychoanalysis (2 of 4)
•
Leibniz, Goethe, and Herbart
– Leibniz’s monadology proposed levels of awareness from
clear to unaware.
– Goethe described human existence as consisting of a
constant struggle between conflicting emotions and
tendencies, which no doubt influenced Freud, as Goethe
was one of Freud’s favorite authors.
– Herbart suggested that there was a threshold above
which an idea is conscious and below which an idea is
unconscious.
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Antecedents of the Development
of Psychoanalysis (3 of 4)
•
Schopenhauer and Nietzsche
– Schopenhauer believed that humans were governed
more by irrational desires than by reason.
– He also anticipated Freud’s concepts of repression and
sublimation.
– Nietzsche also saw humans as engaged in a perpetual
battle between the irrational and the rational.
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Antecedents of the Development of
Psychoanalysis (4 of 4)
•
Freud Borrowed Components
– Freud borrowed:
?
?
•
Fechner’s concept of the iceberg to explain consciousness
and unconsciousness.
Helmholtz’s concept of the conservation of energy within
humans influenced Freud to postulate a use of psychic
energy to be distributed in various ways.
Freud’s Theory
– It may be said that Freud’s theory was a synthesizing of
his philosophical heritage and a product of the Zeitgeist
of his time.
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Sigmund Freud (1 of 2)
•
Influence of Parents’ Relationship
– Freud’s knowledge of his parents’ relationship and the
relationship with his mother influenced him greatly.
•
Role of Ernst Brücke
– Freud credited Ernst Brücke as the person who most
influenced him during his medical studies.
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Sigmund Freud (2 of 2)
•
Experimented with Cocaine
– Freud began experimenting with cocaine
?
Found that it was very beneficial and had no side effects.
– Freud gave a colleague cocaine to treat a morphine
addiction
?
The man died a cocaine addict.
– Freud’s medical reputation was damaged
?
This led to further skepticism of his theory.
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Early Influences on the Development of
Psychoanalysis (1 of 4)
• Josef Breuer
– Freud worked with Breuer with the famous case of Anna
O.
– Using hypnosis as his therapeutic method, Breuer found
that discovering the origin of her physical symptoms,
which were usually traumatic experiences, resulted in the
symptom being relieved.
– He called this the “cathartic method.” The phenomena
which were to be called transference and
countertransference, were also observed during this case.
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Early Influences on the Development of
Psychoanalysis (2 of 4)
• Jean-Martin Charcot
– Freud studied with Charcot for a while, during which he
learned several lessons which later influenced him in his
work.
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Early Influences on the Development of
Psychoanalysis (3 of 4)
• Development of free association
– Freud found hypnosis to be ineffective in several cases
and thus attempted to find another method.
– Eventually found that simply encouraging the patient to
speak freely about whatever comes to mind seemed to
work just as well as hypnosis at uncovering memories
once you can get past the resistance displayed by the
patient.
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Early Influences on the Development of
Psychoanalysis (4 of 4)
•
Basic Ideas of Psychoanalysis
– Symptoms
?
Can be symbolic representations of underlying traumatic
experiences or conflicts, which are repressed
o
?
The repressed experiences or conflicts do not go away.
The most effective way to make repressed material
conscious is through free association.
– Unconscious Motivation
?
Important element of psychoanalysis and Freud
emphasized the role of sex in unconscious motivation.
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Project for a Scientific Psychology (1 of 5)
•
Role of sexual attack (seduction)
– From his work with patients with hysteria, he concluded
that sexual attack (seduction) was the basis of all
hysteria.
?
This was called seduction theory
o
o
He received at least some criticism for the proposal.
He later abandoned the idea.
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Project for a Scientific Psychology (2 of 5)
•
Why Dreams?
– Freud contended that to be an effective psychoanalyst,
the individual must also be psychoanalyzed.
?
?
?
Because there was no person to psychoanalyze him, he
must do it himself.
He could not use free association on himself, so he
needed another avenue for his self-analysis.
He determined that dreams could be symbolic
representations of repressed thoughts.
– Dream analysis became a second method for tapping
into the unconscious.
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Project for a Scientific Psychology (3 of 5)
•
Method of Dream Analysis
– Manifest Content
?
What the dream is apparently about (description)
– Latent Content
?
What the dream is really about (interpretation and
symbolism)
– Wish Fulfillment
?
Every dream is a wish fulfillment, a symbolic
expression of a wish that the dreamer could not
express or satisfy directly without experiencing anxiety.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Project for a Scientific Psychology (4 of 5)
– Dream Work
?
?
To analyze dreams properly, one must be trained and
understand dream work, which disguises the wish actually
being expressed in the dream.
Includes condensation (one element of a dream
symbolizes several things in waking life) and
displacement (where one dreams about something
symbolically similar to an anxiety-provoking event).
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Project for a Scientific Psychology (5 of 5)
– Oedipus Complex
?
Through Freud’s own dream analysis, he confirmed his
belief that young males tend to love their mothers and
hate their fathers. From this, infantile sexuality became an
important ingredient in his general theory of unconscious
motivation.
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The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
(1 of 3)
•
Parapraxes
– Are relatively minor errors in everyday living
?
Examples: such as slips of the tongue, forgetting things,
losing things, small accidents, and mistakes in writing.
– All behavior is motivated, but the causes of behavior
are usually unconscious.
?
Therefore, people seldom know why they act as they do.
– Often unconsciously motivated.
– Behavior is overdetermined, which means that behavior
often has more than one cause.
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The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
(2 of 3)
•
Humor
– People often use humor in the form of jokes to express
unacceptable sexual and aggressive tendencies.
• Religion
– The basis of religion is the human feeling of
helplessness and insecurity.
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The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
(3 of 3)
•
Invited to Clark University in 1909
– Invited to Clark University, along with Jung and Ferenczi,
in 1909 by G. Stanley Hall.
– His lectures were criticized, but reactions were generally
favorable.
•
Introductory Lectures of Psychoanalysis
– His series of five lectures was later expanded into his
influential Introductory Lectures of Psychoanalysis.
•
Growth of Freud’s Fame and Psychoanalysis
– After his visit, Freud’s fame and that of psychoanalysis
grew very rapidly.
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A Review of Freud’s Theory of Personality
(1 of 5)
•
Early theory
– Differentiated among:
?
The conscious
o
?
The preconscious
o
?
Those things of which we are aware at a given moment
Things of which we are not aware but of which we could
easily become aware
The unconscious
o
Memories which are being actively repressed
– Later expanded his views with the concepts of id, ego,
and superego.
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A Review of Freud’s Theory of Personality
(2 of 5)
•
Id
– Driving force of personality
?
Contains all instincts.
– Entirely unconscious
– Governed by the pleasure principle
– The collective energy of the instincts is called libido and
accounts for most human behavior.
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A Review of Freud’s Theory of Personality
(3 of 5)
•
Ego
– Aware of the needs of the id and the physical world
?
?
Major job is to coordinate the two
It is to satisfy the id’s needs and desires by the reality
principle because it satisfies the needs in the real world.
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A Review of Freud’s Theory of Personality
(4 of 5)
•
Superego
– The moral part of personality.
?
It has two divisions:
o
The conscience
?
?
o
Contains the experiences for which the child has been
consistently punished, engaging in or thinking about
Engaging in theses activities causes the child to feel guilty,
and
The ego-ideal
?
?
Contains the experiences for which the child has been
rewarded
Engaging or thinking about engaging in such activities makes
the child feel good about himself/herself.
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A Review of Freud’s Theory of Personality
(5 of 5)
•
Life and Death Instincts
– Life instincts (eros)
?
Include sex, hunger, and thirst
o
These instincts prolong life
– Death instincts (thanatos)
?
Seek to terminate life
o
These instincts manifest as suicide, masochism, or
aggression.
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Anxiety and the Ego Defense Mechanisms
(1 of 4)
•
Reasons for Anxiety
– Three types of anxiety:
1) Objective anxiety
2) Neurotic anxiety
3) Moral anxiety
– One of the ego’s jobs is to deal with anxiety
?
?
To deal with objective anxiety, the ego must deal with the
physical environment.
To deal with neurotic and moral anxiety, the ego must
use one or more processes called ego defense
mechanism.
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Anxiety and the Ego Defense Mechanisms
(2 of 4)
•
Ego Defense Mechanisms
– Repression
?
?
Ideas, memories, desires which are in the unconscious
can enter consciousness only in disguised form so that
they do not cause anxiety.
These ideas, memories, and desires are said to be
repressed.
– Displacement
?
Replacing an object or goal that produces anxiety with one
that does not.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Anxiety and the Ego Defense Mechanisms
(3 of 4)
– Sublimation
?
The expression of sexual urges indirectly through
socially acceptable ways such as poetry, art, religion,
or other ways.
– Projection
?
When one sees undesirable urges and secret desires
as belonging to another person, not one’s self.
– Identification
?
One begins to act like someone else to fulfill needs.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Anxiety and the Ego Defense Mechanisms
(4 of 4)
– Rationalization
?
Providing a rational, logical but false reason for a
failure or shortcoming.
– Reaction formation
?
When a person has a desire to do something but doing
it could cause great anxiety, they do the opposite of
what they really want to do.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(1 of 8)
•
Process of Development
–
Freud believed that at different ages there are different
erogenous zones
?
–
Each stage refers to a particular erogenous zone
?
–
Correspond to the part of the body on which sexual pleasure is
concentrated
According to Freud, the experiences a child has during each
stage determine, to a large extent, his or her adult personality.
The experiences could result in the person becoming fixated
at that stage and affect his/her personality as an adult.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(2 of 8)
•
Oral stage
– The erogenous zone is the mouth
– Lasts through the first year of life.
– Fixation at this stage results in either of two types of
characteristics as an adult:
?
?
A good listener but also an excessive eater, drinker,
kisser, or smoker
Gullible, or a person who is sarcastic, cynical, and
aggressive
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(3 of 8)
•
Anal stage
– Erogenous zone is the anus–buttocks area
– Lasts through about the second year of life.
– Fixation results in either a person who
?
?
Is generous, messy, and wasteful
Tends to be a collector, and to be stingy, orderly and
perfectionistic.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(4 of 8)
•
Phallic stage
– The erogenous zone is the genital area
– Lasts from about the third year through the fifth year
– The most important events during this stage are the
Oedipal complex for boys and girls.
?
The young boy has a desire for his mother and
hostility towards his father, but also fears his father
with castration anxiety.
o
This is resolved when the boy identifies with his father.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(5 of 8)
– The most important events during this stage are the
Oedipal complex for boys and girls. (continued)
?
The young girl notices that she does not have a penis
and blames the mother. She knows her father has a
penis and wants to share with him, and she develops
penis envy. Identifying with the mother and repressing
her feelings toward her father resolve this.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(6 of 8)
– The most important events during this stage are the
Oedipal complex for boys and girls. (continued)
?
The identification with the same-sex parent in both
cases results in the development of the superego.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(7 of 8)
•
Latency stage
– The libido is repressed such that there is no
erogenous zone during this stage
– Lasts from the sixth year to puberty
– Substitute activities are schoolwork, peer-related
activities, and curiosity about the world.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
(8 of 8)
•
Genital stage
– The focus is again on the genital area with an interest
in the opposite sex
– Lasts from puberty through the remainder of one’s life
– If everything has gone well in the preceding stages,
this stage will culminate in dating and eventually
marriage.
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Freud’s Fate (1 of 6)
•
Portrayal of Freud
– Freud and his followers attempted to create an image
of Freud being a lonely, heroic figure who was
discriminated against because he was Jewish.
– Also, his ideas were so revolutionary that the
established medical community could not accept
them.
– Both of these issues are contradicted by facts.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Freud’s Fate (2 of 6)
•
Manipulations During Therapy
– In “The Aetiology of Hysteria,” Freud wrote that none
of Freud’s patients reported a seduction of any kind.
– There is evidence now that that he manipulated
events during therapy as to confirm that hysteria had
a sexual origin.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Freud’s Fate (3 of 6)
•
The Reality of Repressed Memory
– There is a current debate over the accuracy of
repressed memories.
?
Many researchers accept them as valid, but many do
not.
– Based on her research, Elizabeth Loftus has
concluded that most, if not all, reports of repressed
memories are false.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Freud’s Fate (4 of 6)
•
Common criticisms:
–
Method of Data Collection
?
–
Definition of Terms
?
–
Not clear, not quantifiable
Dogmatism
?
–
No controlled experimentation
No toleration for conflicting ideas
Overemphasis on sex
?
Many of his followers broke with him just for that
reason
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Freud’s Fate (5 of 6)
–
Self-fulfilling prophesy
?
–
Length, cost, and limited effectiveness of
psychoanalysis
?
–
Freud found what he was looking for because he was
looking for it
Takes too long and too costly for common people
Lack of falsifiability
?
A good theory must have this characteristic
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Freud’s Fate (6 of 6)
•
Positive contributions of Freud
–
–
–
–
Expansion of psychology’s domain
Psychoanalysis
Understanding of normal behavior
Generalization of psychology to other fields
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Anna Freud (1 of 5)
•
Anna Freud and Melanie Klein
– Two early female psychoanalysts that had a conflict
regarding child analysis.
?
?
Klein focused more on pre-Oedipal development.
Freud’s views would be the ones that generally
prevailed.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Anna Freud (2 of 5)
•
Ego psychology
– Significant differences between analyzing children
and adults
?
?
These differences caused Anna to emphasize the ego
more in child analysis than when treating adults.
The major difference is that children do not recall early
traumatic experiences as adults do. Children display
developmental experiences as they occur.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Anna Freud (3 of 5)
– Anna used the term “developmental lines” to describe
the child’s gradual transition from dependence on
external controls to mastery of internal and external
reality.
?
?
These lines are attempts by the child to adapt to life’s
demands, whether those demands are situational,
interpersonal, or personal.
The lines describe normal development.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Anna Freud (4 of 5)
•
Two Additional Defense Mechanisms
– Added to the traditional defense mechanisms
– Altruistic surrender
?
A person gives up his or her own ambitions and lives
vicariously by identifying with another person’s
satisfactions and frustrations.
– Identification with the aggressor
?
?
A person adopts the values and mannerisms of a
feared person as his or her own.
For Anna this is the mechanism that explains the
development of the superego.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Anna Freud (5 of 5)
•
Analysis of the Ego
– Started the analysis of the ego, which was continued
by Hartmann and Erikson
?
Erikson
o
Extended Freud’s developmental milestones into
adulthood and even old age and changed them to focus
on social development rather than sexual development.
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Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (1 of 11)
•
Libido
– Main source of disagreement between Jung and
Freud was the nature of the libido.
?
Freud, libido was sexual energy
o
?
?
The main driving force of personality.
Jung saw libidinal energy as a creative life force that
could be applied to the individual’s continuous
psychological growth
The libidinal energy is used for a wide range of human
activities
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (2 of 11)
•
The importance of middle age
– Jung believed that the goal of life is to reach selfactualization.
– Once a person has recognized the many conflicting
forces in his or her personality, the person is in a
position to synthesize and harmonize them.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (3 of 11)
•
The Personal Unconscious
– Combines Freud’s notions of the preconscious and
the unconscious
– Consists of experiences that had either been
repressed or simply forgotten
?
Material from one’s lifetime that for one reason or
another is not in consciousness
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (4 of 11)
•
The Collective Unconscious and the archetypes
– Jung’s most mystical and controversial concept
– The deepest and most powerful component of the
personality
?
Reflects the cumulative experiences of humans
throughout their entire evolutionary past
– Registers common experiences that humans have
had through the eons.
?
They are inherited as predispositions to respond
emotionally to certain categories of experience.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (5 of 11)
– These inherited predispositions are called archetypes.
?
Persona
o
o
?
Causes people to present only part of their personality to the
public
The mask we present and let others see
Shadow
o
o
The archetype that we inherit from our prehuman ancestors
Provides us with the tendency to be immoral and aggressive
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (6 of 11)
?
Anima
o
?
Provides the female component of the male personality
and the
Animus
o
Provides the masculine component of the female
personality
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Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (7 of 11)
•
The Attitudes
– Jung described two major psychological attitudes that
people take in relating to the world:
?
Introversion
o
?
Extroversion
o
?
The tendency to be quiet, imaginative, and more
interested in ideas than in personal interaction.
The tendency to be outgoing and sociable
Each person possesses both, but usually assumes one
of the two attitudes more than the other.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (8 of 11)
•
Causality, Teleology, and Synchronicity
– The important causes of a person’s personality are
found in his/her past experiences.
– Jung believed that to understand a person, you must
understand the person’s prior experiences and their
future goals.
?
Thus, Jung embraced teleology (purpose).
– Synchronicity occurs when two or more events, each
with their own independent causality, come together
in a meaningful way.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (9 of 11)
•
Dreams
– Jung believed that dreams are a means of giving
expression to aspects of the psyche that are
underdeveloped.
– Dream analysis can be used to determine which
aspects of the psyche are being given adequate
expression and which are not.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (10 of 11)
•
Criticisms and Contributions
– Criticisms
?
?
?
Being metaphysical and unverifiable
Antiscientific
Unclear, incomprehensible, and sometimes
contradictory.
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Beyond Freud?Carl Jung (11 of 11)
– Contributions
?
Jungian theory and ideas continue to be influential with
many followers throughout the world
o Many major cities have Jungian institutes that elaborate
and disseminate his ideas.
?
His notions of introversion and extroversion are
popular today in many areas of personality theory such
as personality tests.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Alfred Adler (1 of 4)
•
Organ Inferiority and Compensation
– Adler believed that physical and mental illness have a
physiological origin.
– People are sensitive to disease in organs that are
“inferior” to other organs.
– One way to adjust to a weakness is through
compensation, which is adaptation.
– Another way is overcompensation, which is the
conversion of a weakness to a strength.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Alfred Adler (2 of 4)
•
Feelings of Inferiority
– Adler contended that all humans have feelings of
inferiority or weakness.
?
These feelings motivate people first as children and
later as adults to gain power to overcome these
feelings.
– He suggested that people strive for superiority
?
By this, he meant to overcome these feelings by
striving to be the best he or she can be—not to have
power over other people.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Alfred Adler (3 of 4)
•
Worldviews, fictional goals, and lifestyles
– The child develops a worldview from early experiences
?
From this worldview come guiding fictions (future goals)
and
o
From the fictions comes a lifestyle.
– The lifestyle encompasses the activities performed while
pursuing one’s goals.
?
?
For a lifestyle to be truly effective, it must contain
considerable social interest.
A lifestyle without adequate social interest is a mistaken
lifestyle.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud?Alfred Adler (4 of 4)
•
The Creative Self
– Adler’s theory was quite different from Freud’s even
though he began his career with Freud.
– Adler believed that life is inherently meaningless
?
However, one is free to invent meaning and then act “as
if” it were true.
– Adler’s theory emphasized the conscious mind, social
rather than sexual motives, and free will.
– His ideas greatly influenced the humanistic
psychologists.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud–Karen Horney (1 of 4)
•
Disagreement with Freudian Theory
– Horney took issue with Freud on many counts.
?
?
She thought that his notions could not be applied
universally, especially for those with whom she worked
in depression era America.
For Horney, a person’s social experiences determine
whether or not he or she will have psychological
problems, not intrapsyche conflict.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud–Karen Horney (2 of 4)
•
Basic hostility and basic anxiety
– For Horney, the parent–child relationship is most
important.
?
?
?
If the parent can consistently and lovingly satisfy the
child’s needs, the child will become a normal, healthy adult
However, if the parents react indifferently, inconsistently,
or even with hatred (this is called the basic evil) the child
will develop basic hostility towards the parents and this
develops into a worldview.
If the basic hostility is repressed it becomes basic anxiety
(feelings of being lonely and helpless in a hostile world).
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud–Karen Horney (3 of 4)
•
Adjustments to basic anxiety
– Horney proposed that people with basic anxiety
(neurotic individuals) develop one of three adjustment
patterns.
?
Moving towards people
o
?
Moving against people
o
?
Becoming a compliant person
Becoming a hostile person, using power
Moving away from people
o
Becoming a detached person
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
Beyond Freud–Karen Horney (4 of 4)
•
Feminine Psychology
– Horney took issue with Freud’s theory and developed
a feminine-oriented psychoanalysis in which males
envy the female anatomy rather than females envying
the male anatomy.
– Horney’s position was that personality traits are
determined more by cultural than by biological
factors.
© 2019 Cengage. All rights reserved.
History and Theories of Psychology
Class Book:
Hergenhahn’s An Introduction to the History
of Psychology
ISBN: 978-1-337-56415-1
Cengage